The Development of Arabic Scripts

1. Pre †Islamic Era Arabic content is presumably one of the most seasoned on the planet, having been broadly spread across societies as this was the language used to spread Islam in significant domains. Its impact can be seen in different dialects which embraced Arabic content to build up their own particular manner of recording, similar to Persian, Pashto, Urdu and then some. Be that as it may, Arab contents have developed with major authentic occasions of these countries (AncientScripts. com). Different records of the historical backdrop of Arabia, the ‘island of the Arabs’, give the feeling that Arabic contents began to take structure at the stature of Islamization or during the hour of Prophet Mohammed.It is said to have started from the fourth century, CE yet there is proof †an antiquated archive †that shows Arabic content was at that point a mode for recording even as ahead of schedule as 512 CE. Some time before the Prophet Mohammed was conceived (a few writers state even 700 years before Mohammed), the Arabs previously had set up a type of composed language which initially was utilized by the Nabateans who once possessed a region which is presently the realm of Jordan. This was known as the Nabatean content, which advanced from the Aramaic language.The Nabataean content was an off †shoot of the Aramaic letter set which created in the main century CE on the Sinai Peninsula and in North Arabia. It contrasts obviously from other Aramaic assortments by utilizing ligatures. Stone engravings in the Nabataean content are found from Petra, the capital of the Nabataean Kingdon (c. 150 CE to 100 CE), to Damascus and Medina. The content isn't bore witness to in original copies, despite the fact that its cursive character with letters much of the time consolidated shows regular use.The language of the engravings is Nabataean, a nearby related of Aramaic †different writers guarantee it s Aramaic and that the Nabataeans had doubl e language styles for correspondence: written in Aramaic, verbal in Arabic. Spread over a wide zone, the content shows impressive variety with profoundly differing letter shapes. Its centrality for the historical backdrop of composing lies in its being the quick progenitor of the Arabic content. Certain highlights of the Arabic character, for example, the presence of discrete last structures for specific letters, are now foreshadowed in Nabataean writing.Its change into the Arabic content occurred in the fourth and fifth hundreds of years CE (Calmous 350). In the North of the Syrian Desert, the Arabs were engaged with world governmental issues particularly prior. Significantly under the Assyrian lord Tiglath †Pileser III (745 †728BC), there was an Arabi realm there with its capital in the Jawf, which was controlled by sovereigns and stayed one of the vassal conditions of Assyria until the hour of Essarhaddon (689 †669 BC). The Babylonian King Nabunaid (556 †539 B C) had his living arrangement for quite a while in the desert garden of Tayma, which was the base of his undertakings against the west.An Aramaic engraving from the Persian time discovered there shows the association of the city clique, with its ministers and sanctuary divine beings. At that point as right on time as the time of the last Achaemenians, the Nabataean state jumped up (in a region of cutting edge Jordan). This state controlled the band exchange from South Africa to Medina and remained fundamentally autonomous since Alexander the Great’s plan of vanquishing Arabia via ocean from east and west at the same time was not continued by his successors.At first, Petra’s trade was attracted to Bostra, where parades at that point continued to Chalcis, underneath Lebanon and Emesa, Edessa, and Hatra toward the north and east. The Nabataeans embraced the titles of their authorities and military pioneers from neighboring Hellenistic states. The Nabataean capital was Pet ra, a mountain stronghold lying somewhere between the Dead Sea and the tip of the Arabian bay (Brockelman 6).Numerous engravings and vestiges found in the stone †slice burial chambers take the stand concerning the thriving human advancement of the Nabataeans however in these engravings, Aramaic was utilized for it was then the official language dating as far back as the hour of the Achaemenians. There are additionally records of different history specialists that Arabic was the communicated in language of the Nabataeans yet they compose utilizing Aramaic. At first, they were considered by the Romans as partners until the hour of Trajan yet because of questions over their equivocalness during the Jewish rebellion under Titus, the Nabataean Kingdom was retained as Provincia Arabia in 106 BC.The humanized regions †or the significant urban areas where exchanges happen †were separated from the deset by a chain of fortresses which were a long way from being solid as the Lim es on the Rhine and on the Danube wilderness (Brockelman 6). Be that as it may, in another Arab state, Palmyra, the Nabataeans found an increasingly blessed beneficiary. In the wars among Rome and the Parthians, Palmyra was wisely impartial and when of Augustus, had the option to stretch out its exchange associations with Rome, Dacia, Gaul and Spain. The Severian Dynasty, additionally half †Semitic, indicated favor on Palmyra.From 260 onwards King Odenat expanded his standard over the whole Syria and was even recognized by the feeble Roman Emperor, Gallienus, as co †head for the Orient. After his demise in 268, his better half Zenobia kept up his capacity for a period however Aurelianus demolished Palmyra in 273. This catastrophe would be retold through ages even until the main hundreds of years of Islam. (Brockelmann 7). Palmyra spoke to the last position of Arab autonomy pre †Islam and its fall denoted lost Arab independence.No other Arab state in the north stayed f ree after this and they were utilized as vassals by the Romans and Byzantines to avert attacks of the travelers (Bedouins, or Arabs) into the settled districts. This is most likely why the Nabataeans held their contents significantly under Roman standard †on the grounds that they proceeded with their exchanges and were additionally vassals to avert their own sort from coming into significant urban communities of trade (Brockelmann 7). In the sixth century, nonetheless, the Ghassanid line managed at Damascus, east of the Jordan.He was assigned by Justinian in 529 as patricius and phylarch with preeminent authority over all the Arabs in the northern Syria. Yet, this force again broke down into fragmentary realms after his demise and when they prevailed upon the Persians, the Roman Emperor let their authorities rule until a Muslim assault brought another Ghassanid leader of the Syrian Arabs (Brockelmann 8). Previously and during these periods, the Arabs had been presented to Chris tianity (Yah-weh/Judaism) at once or another.First, from the Roman Empire Christianity practicing incredible control over them, down to the Lakhmid Dynasty in Hirah who once served the Persians and had at long last gone to the Christian confidence of their urban subjects, even the Bedouins in the north were in close contact with the indigenous Aramean populace, who had since a long time ago been gobbled up by Christianity. Internal Arabia likewise because of their exchanging urban communities of the Hijaz must have additionally been saturated by an information on Christian lessons and customs, anyway shallow, because of the consistent traffic with related clans in the north.The anchorites, whose cells more likely than not spread from Palestine and Sinai Peninsula far into the desert, almost certainly likewise made a considerable number of commitments. Also, the desert was a refuge from certain groups oppressed by the set up chapel, and correctly these may have spread their conventio ns with more accomplishment than the Orthodox Church. During these occasions, be that as it may, the Aramaic language despite everything remained the authority and head regulatory language.Thus, the majority of the engravings on the Petra were in Aramaic however there have been proof indicating that the Nabataeans before utilized their own language for their nearby exchanges and in oral trade, yet held Aramaic for recording because of its incentive in exchanging with different nations. Different creators recommend that some Arab countries or states were really oral gatherings; which means, they hand down their accounts by telling and re †telling it and still could keep it new in their recollections however there are additionally bunches who were visual, or those which couldn't keep a psychological record of occasions in this way, keep records in tablet form.Nomads, for example, or Bedouins, regularly recount verse in their social occasions inside their tents any place they are in the sweet. Be that as it may, those occupied with exchanges, in the significant urban areas, regularly would decided to put down to keep an account of their exchanges. Many accept that the old Arabs’ presentation to Christians/those rehearsing Judaism most likely legitimizes the impact or hints of Sumerian, Greek, Akkadian or Aramaic framework to an in any case Semitic legacy in the Arabic contents or composed just as spoken languages.But others contend that however there show up certain focuses for appearing likenesses, these really speak to the watched or rehearsed frameworks utilized by various nations at that point. While a few creators credit the varieties to osmosis, others accept the language and in this manner, the contents, developed after occasions in Arab history. In any case, on account of the Nabataeans from the previous region currently called Jordan, they had the option to keep both, Arab language and Aramaic scripts.This is maybe in light of the fact that a ll Arabs, including the Nabataeans who were under Roman standard for a long time, were utilized as vassals against their own Arab siblings. Accordingly they kept their language to speak with one another, and for exchanging purposes, looked after Aramaic. The duality could maybe be because of the way that two to some degree contrasting elements framed their general public at that point: the urban individuals and the travelers (whom they needed to avert from the focal point of human advancement, similar to their undertaking as vassals for the Roman Empire).The previous depended such a great amount on setting up for keeping accounts, while the last mentioned, utilized verbal exchange to convey data, even discuss verse. Different creators however, accept that the Aramaic engravings

Surveying and mapping Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 7500 words

Looking over and mapping - Essay Example Planning a compelling and productive study arrange is one of the basic angles in the actualize of field overviews. Conversely, the structure of a study arrange is an entangled and modern undertaking in light of the fact that a study organize requirements to meet or surpass determined standards for accuracy, unwavering quality, affectability, and cost. Other crucial variables must be considered in an achievable plan, for example, land standards, reasonableness for gear estimation, long haul wellbeing, field time and access costs (Talaya, et al., 1999). Along these lines, it is essential to actualize the strategies and instruments of the plan of the overview system to manage an assortment of current issues. For example, disfigurement observing system of dam (Gã ¶kalp and Taåÿ㠧ä ±, 2009), exact leveling of the system (Shahrum and Azhari, 2009), and control the system of development, have drawn serious consideration for assessors. The point of overview organize configuration is comprehended as making an ideal system design and perception plan that fulfills the proposed arrange quality measures (e.g., mistake circles and repetition numbers) with least expense (Amiri-Simkooei and Sharifi, 2004). At the end of the day, review arrange configuration has two viewpoints: utilizing the present gear and condition to saturate the design of the study coordinate with a higher exactness, affectability and unwavering quality; the expense of the study organize is the most minimal when the system meets the accuracy, affectability and reliability.... Expanding measures of analysts have considered the exceptionally crucial job input circles play in the general advancement of system structure innovation (Mishima 2009; Anderson, and Mikhail, 2003). With the developing requirement for expanded criticism systems to guarantee exactness and unwavering quality, programming, for example, Geolab has risen to endeavor to represent these measures through experimentation procedural least square alteration. All things considered, the total capability of such a framework stays to be comprehended. This exploration progresses with a setting thought of this hypothetical comprehension. 1.2 Classification of overview organize structure In understanding with Grafarend’s proposals (Grafarend, 1974), study arrange configuration can be deteriorated into four littler issues. 1) Zero request structure (ZOD) The free system that is a known setup and perception plan will choose an ideal facilitate framework for the organize of control focuses and the ir difference. At the end of the day, to decide the directions of vector X and the co-factor network when the plan lattice and weight grid of perception P is known, with the goal that X is a target capacity to boundaries. Along these lines, ZOD is a change issue. 2) First request plan (FOD) Design grid A will be resolved when the perception framework P is known, so a few components of the review organize arrive at a foreordained worth or the most noteworthy precision, or the best estimate to the Coordinate of a given network. 3) Second request configuration (SOD) To decide the weight lattice of perception P when the plan network P is known, so a few components can accomplish the ideal exactness or the most elevated precision, or organize the best guess of a co-factor framework given grid. 4) Third request plan

Ways to Cope With Stress When You Stop Smoking

Ways to Cope With Stress When You Stop Smoking Addiction Nicotine Use After You Quit Print How to Deal With Stress While You Quit Smoking By Terry Martin facebook twitter Terry Martin quit smoking after 26 years and is now an advocate for those seeking freedom from nicotine addiction. Learn about our editorial policy Terry Martin Medically reviewed by Medically reviewed by Sanja Jelic, MD on August 05, 2016 Sanja Jelic, MD, is board-certified in sleep medicine, critical care medicine, pulmonary disease, and internal medicine.   Learn about our Medical Review Board Sanja Jelic, MD Updated on October 24, 2019 James Braund/Getty Images More in Addiction Nicotine Use After You Quit How to Quit Smoking Nicotine Withdrawal Smoking-Related Diseases The Inside of Cigarettes Alcohol Use Addictive Behaviors Drug Use Coping and Recovery What triggers the urge to smoke the most for you? Anger? Boredom? Fatigue? Joy? If youre like most people, you associate all of these feelings with smoking, but stress/anger probably stands out as your number one smoking trigger. When youre stressed, the urge to smoke can be intense. As a smoker, you might think that you need cigarettes to keep calm. But in fact, smoking creates more stress than it dispels. Learning how to cope with stress without a cigarette is difficult when you first quit smoking. But with a few tools and some practice, youll find its less challenging than you might have expected. Components of Recovering From Nicotine Addiction There are two main components of recovery from nicotine addiction: physical withdrawal from nicotine and healing the mind of the habits associated with smoking. Managing Nicotine Withdrawal Physically, your body reacts to withdrawal from nicotine as well as the thousands of chemicals present in the cigarette smoke you inhale. This phase of recovery creates stress of its own that you must be prepared to cope with. Having an awareness of how stress fits in as a byproduct of early recovery from nicotine addiction, as well as a few tools to deal with the discomforts, will help you manage it successfully. Tackling Mental Challenges On an emotional level, smoking cessation forces you to deal with the loss of cigarettes as a crutch you leaned on to manage your feelings. For many people, dealing with the mental challenges can be one of the most difficult aspects of smoking cessation. Managing Stress When Quitting Your Nicotine Addiction Use the 10 tips and strategies below to help you cope with stress when you quit smoking. Be patient with yourself and allow recovery to unfold for you as it will. Remember, release from nicotine addiction comes gradually, as you erase old associations and habits one by one, replacing them with new, healthier choices. In time, youll find that stress is more easily managed smoke-free than it ever was when you were smoking. What Should You Do Before You Stop Smoking? Dont Neglect Yourself Early cessation is a time when you should be taking extra care to make sure all of your needs are being met. Following these simple guidelines will help you weather nicotine withdrawal more comfortably: Eat a well-balanced diet. Your body needs good quality fuel now as it works to flush the toxins out of your system.Drink water. Water is a great quitting aid. It helps you detox more quickly and works well as a craving-buster. And by keeping yourself hydrated, youll feel better overall. Drink plenty of water throughout the day.Take a daily multivitamin. Give your body the boost that a good multivitamin provides for the duration of the withdrawal process. Cigarettes deplete so many nutrients, and vitamins may help you rebound more quickly from the nicotine withdrawal symptoms that you experience. Cut Out Caffeine When you quit smoking, the amount of coffee or caffeinated colas youre accustomed to might now make you jittery and anxious. Reduce caffeine intake, or cut it out completely for a while, especially if youre having trouble sleeping through the night. Chances are, once youre through the withdrawal process, youll be able to drink coffee again, though perhaps not in the same quantity as before quitting. Take a Warm Bath Enoying a bath is a great way to relax and de-stress. And yes, its good for the guys too. Light a few candles, use some scented bath salts, and submerge. Get a Massage Enlist your partner or another willing pair of hands to help work the stress out of your muscles. If you can get a full body massage, great, but even 10 or 15 minutes spent on your neck, shoulders, face, and scalp can work wonders. Our bodies tend to hold onto the tension we feel in our muscles, and a good massage is worth its weight in gold as a means to relieve stress. Put on Your Walking Shoes A short walk every dayâ€"even for 15 minutesâ€"will help you manage stress as you withdraw from nicotine. Walking reduces edginess and improves circulation. Exercise releases endorphins, the feel good hormone. So, when the urge to smoke strikes, head out for a walk around the block. Youll come back refreshed and relaxed. Get Enough Sleep The early days of smoking cessation are tiring. Your body is stressed and so is your mind. Allow more time for sleep if you need it and can manage it. Dont worry: The weariness youre feeling wont last forever. Your energy will return soon. Visualize Close your eyes and create a place in your mind that you can go to when you need to slow down and relax. It could be a real location or imaginary, but make it yours. Use the same place every time so it becomes familiar and comfortable. As you settle in, start to follow your breathing, and slow it down gradually. Breathe deeply in and out for 3 to 5 minutes. How to Use Visualization to Relax and Manage Stress Deep Breathing Deep breathing is a quick way to calm edgy nerves and reduce stress. Breathe in through your nose for a count of three and exhale through your mouth for a count of three. Repeat this for a few minutes, and the tension in your body will begin to fall away. Focus on Today We spend so much time thinking about everything but the day we have in front of us. Dont worry about tomorrow or forever. Dont get lost in feelings of fear about never being able to smoke again. Think instead about today and resolve to make the most of it. You have the ability to stay smoke-free just for today, dont you? Thats all you need to do. Baby steps! Dont let feelings of worry about tomorrow intimidate you today. Dont Take Yourself Too Seriously You will have bad days. Expect and accept that. Such is smoking cessation, and such is life. On those off days, resolve to put yourself on ignore. Sometimes the best thing we can do is to get out of our own way. Our minds can make small issues huge, and make a drama out of every little thing when our moods are out of whack. When youre having a bad day, think pamper. Be good to yourself; allow for a treat or two, and put your thoughts on hold. Tomorrow will find you feeling better and grateful to still be smoke-free. Stress is part of life, and learning how to manage it smoke-free is part of successful cessation. With time and practice, your smoke-free life will flow with ease. 10 Things to Stop Doing When You Quit Smoking

The Production Of Waste ( Tarr 15 ) - 1421 Words

Throughout the mid-19th century, many cities across America were becoming industrialized and growing in size. As a city develops and grows, the city uses resources such as food, raw products, and energy. All these resources are consumed by a city. The outcome of all this consumption is the production of waste (Tarr 15). In the mid-19th century, a massive migration of Americans and wave of migrants from different countries in Europe and other parts of the world begin to settle in urban settings across America. Many were seeking better job opportunities and better lives in American cities. As a result, industrial cities grew dramatically and became heavily congested. As cities grew and began to emerge, many more resources were consumed†¦show more content†¦The working-class districts had poor water supplies than did the affluent neighborhoods. The working-class relied on using the nearby local springs, wells, and rivers that were polluted. Tarr argued that the pollution of the rivers in Pittsburg was caused from both domestic and industrial sources, which has badly affected the condition of water being extracted from rivers, wells, which is used heavily for both consuming water and for industrial usages (Tarr 16). As factories were built near riverbanks, many industries would pollute the nearby water resources as oils, chemicals, and waste contaminated vital drinking water. However, this pollution of water was also the result of so many people living in a congested city. As more people living in a city and consume the vital resource of water, more waste is produced and resulted in heavy water pollution. In the 19th century, many other cities also met this similar problem as Pittsburgh. The pollution of water became a major issue affecting cities and affecting its working class communities. Not only was access to clean water was a problem across industrial cities in the mid-19th century, so was the issue of wastewater. There was a concern with wastewater and how it needed to be disposed of. Joel Tarr argued that the lack of treatment of wastewater in Pittsburgh households and industries, as well as stormwater, became a nuisance. Household wastes and wastewater were usually placed in cesspools and privy vaults andShow MoreRelatedThe American Industrial City : The Issue Of Fresh Water, Water Pollution, And Smells1480 Words   |  6 Pagesconsumption is the production of waste (Tarr 15). In the mid-19th century, a massive migration of Americans and wave of migrants from different countries in Europe and other parts of the world begin to settle in urban settings across America. Many were seeking better job opportunities and better lives in American cities. As a result, industrial cities grew dramatically and became heavily congested. As cities grew and began to emerge , many more resources were consumed and more waste was produced. ThusRead MoreOne Significant Change That Has Occurred in the World Between 1900 and 2005. Explain the Impact This Change Has Made on Our Lives and Why It Is an Important Change.163893 Words   |  656 Pagesmodernity is not just a teleological assumption. Moving may have been one of the elemental activities of our species, along with eating and reproducing, but mass movement was a new phenomenon—as was the related â€Å"massification† of reproduction, production, trade, and transportation, as well as communication, consumption, and culture. Mass migration is an integral part of these broader global processes that have shaped the modern world. Dating the shift is—like the periodization of any social process—a

The V-22 Osprey The Major Challenges, Roles, and Impacts...

The V-22 Osprey: The Major Roles and Impacts of this Innovative Aircraft History of the V-22, including Challenges: The V22-Osprey was an aircraft that began as a figment of the imagination of the US armed forces and related parties. It is a tiltrotor aircraft that can takeoff vertically, considered a VTOL (vertical takeoff and landing), as well as an STOL (short takeoff and landing), while also being capable of converting into a turboprop airplane capable of high-speed, high-altitude flight. The aircraft was a quite costly and deadly research project that began in 1982 that has since gone into production and use. These factors made it a controversial project at time, however its benefits have surpassed the challenges presented†¦show more content†¦On January 15, 1985 the US Dept of Defense (DoD) designated the aircraft as the V-22 with the nickname of Osprey. The first prototype was unveiled in May 1988, but that same year the US Army left the program due to rising costs and other factors. This left to US Marines and US Air Force as the remain ing primary contributers. The program continued despite much political turmoil. One issue almost cancelled the program altogether in 1992. The next two big leaps were the first horizontal flight on March 19, 1989 and the first vertical flight shortly after on September 14, 1989. These progresses are likely what kept the Osprey idea alive for that time period. Regardless of those success steps, the fourth and fifth prototypes were lost and the designers sent back to their drawing boards again. Following some redesign, the project continued with the Osprey now designated the V-22B, the second or B iteration of the aircraft, instead of the V-22A that they now call the first attempt. More setbacks occurred still. There were two major accidents that claimed the life of 19 marines in April and December 2000 (Bell Boeing). These accidents were quickly broadcast on news stations and forced another reevaluation of the feasibility of this aircraft and its development. Somehow, design cont inued. Looking in retrospect, it seems as though the full scale testing of the craft with so many soldiers on board occurredShow MoreRelatedEssay about Boeing Company Analysis15946 Words   |  64 PagesCOMPETITION 20 Core Competition 20 Competitive profiles 23 Comparing Core Competencies 25 Threats to Boeing’s Competitive Position 27 Main Competitors 28 Competitive Profile 30 FINANCIAL ANALYSIS 32 Introduction 32 Role of Financial Analysis 33 Liquidity/Solvency Ratios 34 Profit Ratios 35 Leverage Ratios 37 Turnover Ratios 39 Conclusion 41 SWOT ANALYSIS 42 Introduction 42 Strengths 43 Weaknesses 45 Conclusion 47 OpportunitiesRead MoreThe Boeing Company 2007 Annual Report61846 Words   |  248 PagesThis Page Intentionally Left Blank The Boeing Company 2007 Annual Report Leading the Way Vision 2016: People working together as a global enterprise for aerospace leadership The Boeing Company Boeing is the world’s leading aerospace company and the largest manufacturer of commercial jetliners and military aircraft combined, providing products and tailored services to airlines and U.S. and allied armed forces around the world. Our capabilities include rotorcraft, electronic and defenseRead MoreAnnual Report Rolls-Royce78484 Words   |  314 PagesTeAmwork And Technology Rolls-Royce Group plc Annual report 2010 Trusted to deliver excellence BUSIneSS reVIew 01 Introduction and highlights 02 Chairman’s statement 04 Chief Executive’s review 08 Our consistent strategy 20 Market outlook 22 Key performance indicators 26 Principal risks and uncertainties 28 Review of operations 28 civil aerospace 30 defence aerospace 32 marine 34 energy 36 engineering and technology 38 operations 40 Services 42 Sustainability 48 Finance Director’s review

Abraham Lincoln Did Not Free the Slaves Free Essays

To this very day, many still believe that Abraham Lincoln, with his Emancipation Proclamation, serves as a revolutionary train that guided America in a forward direction to the abolishment of slavery. As dainty and â€Å"happily ever after† as such sounds, sadly this is not the case at all. Though Lincoln and many other Northerners opposed slavery, emancipation of the millions of enslaved blacks wasn’t always well accepted in the racist society of the North or the South. We will write a custom essay sample on Abraham Lincoln Did Not Free the Slaves or any similar topic only for you Order Now Northern blacks were typically more outspoken about the issues of slavery; however, this led to many being seen as merely stoking the fire that would lead to a civil war and secession of the South. Eventually secession did occur with the election of 1860 and Abraham Lincoln’s anti-slavery platform, but Lincoln didn’t immediately grant manumission of all the slaves. Instead, as years past and war weariness settled in, along with an already occurring self-liberating force by enslaved blacks, Lincoln passed the Emancipation Proclamation. This historical document has been morphed into being accepted as Lincoln’s greatest achievement and the freeing of slaves. When actually analyzing the contents of this document and already occurring self-liberation movements of this time, it is evident that Abraham Lincoln didn’t free the slaves. 1. Self-Liberation Movements a. Motivation i. Declaration from God ii. Civil War 1. Allowed the already self-liberation black movement to grow. 2. Believed that if North Won = End of Slavery 3. Believed that if South Won = Slavery everywhere b. Ran towards Union Lines i. Pilgrim Armies ii. Camped in areas where Union Soldiers occupied 1. â€Å"Freedom Fort† 2. Union-held Fortress Monroe 3. Hundreds left slavery and went here. iii. Left from Virginia and the Carolinas to Richmond iv. Left Tennessee, Kentucky, Arkansas, and Missouri to the North c. Self-made Emancipation proclamations i. Many slaves made their own. ii. Inspiration from slave songs. d. Became an unavoidable Military and Political Issue i. Many enlisted ii. Worked on Union encampments iii. Served as spies iv. Treated as Contraband v. Abraham Lincoln and other Generals didn’t recognize their freedom in most cases. . Emancipation Proclamation a. Purpose i. Proclamation was created to weaken Confederacy. ii. Lincoln’s goal was to repair the union. iii. Purpose was not to free slaves. b. Contents i. Proclamation freed only slaves in â€Å"Rebellious† States. ii. Lincoln preserved slavery in â€Å"loyal states† and parts of the confederacy in Union control. c. Effectiveness i. No authority over the â€Å"Rebellious† States ii. Slaves in the South were already liberating themselves iii. There wasn’t a way to enforce this Proclamation. d. Lincoln’s Views i. Didn’t believe in a black and white society. i. Was anti-slavery, different from abolitionist. iii. More focused on preserving the Union and halting expansion of slavery. iv. Why did he wait two years if he really wanted to emancipate the slaves? v. Lincoln’s Letter to Horace Greeley â€Å"my paramount object in this struggle is to save the Union, and it is not either to save or destroy slavery, If I could save the Union without freeing any slave, I would do it, and if I could save it by freeing all the slaves, I would do it; and if I could save it by freeing some and leaving others alone I would also do that. â€Å" How to cite Abraham Lincoln Did Not Free the Slaves, Papers

The Handmaid’s Tale Essay Thesis Example For Students

The Handmaid’s Tale Essay Thesis This essay explores how dystopia can serve as a warning in a society of inequality, oppression and lack of freedom. It shows how extreme views can be dangerous and what can happen when human rights are breached.  The Handmaids Tale is an account of one of the major characters third post in the Republic of Gilead formerly the USA. This novel is set in the 20th century under a patriarchal regime, founded on a fundamental Christian movement. This society is ruled by the government using force, brutality and State controlled technology. Lessons from the bible are distorted as a means of control to reinforce their inhumane state practices. All forms of communication are banned. Women are categories according to age, marital status and their ability to reproduce. Men are categorised according to age and their worthiness as a commander of the elite faith of Jacob. Spinsters, homosexuals and barren women are sent to the colonies to clean up after wars and toxic waste. A handmaids only purpose is to serve as a surrogate mother for the wives of childless commanders. We will write a custom essay on The Handmaid’s Tale Thesis specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now This novel is set in the science fiction genre but can also be classified under dystopian and feminist literature. Politics is one of Atwoods major concerns, a theme running throughout. She also discusses feminism, her idea of heterosexual relationships, ecology, the concerns she has between the relationship between Canada and the USA. She voices concerns with basic human rights under various state laws and that any extreme ideology can lead to disaster. She reinforces the view that great care needs to be taken of our planet to ensure our survival. Within the Gilead society, there are warnings of how extreme views can be dangerous. For example, the dichotomy adopted by Serena Joy and Offreds mother, in their lives before, resulting in similarly sad outcomes during their lives in Gilead. Offreds mothers desire of being absolved by history is unfulfilled as she is labelled unwoman. Serena Joy is trapped in Gileads interpretation of her ideology as truly seen by Offred:  she stays in her home, but it doesnt seem to agree with her  Offred is portrayed in her life before as intelligent, educated and sensible. Offred notices that the values of society that once stood are declining but decides to ignore this. With hindsight she declares  We lived, as usual, by ignoring. Ignoring isnt the same as ignorance, you have to work at it.  There is evidence of the break down of previous society throughout. For example, marriage is devalued and Offred agrees when Moria scolds her for going out with a married man, describing Offred as poaching another womans man. Offred also relates how her daughter was almost snatched in a supermarket, again in hindsight  I thought it was an isolated incident at the time  There are other references throughout regarding the increased violence, high rate of sexual freedom, high numbers of rape, spread of sexually transmitted disease, etc. The fertility rate has also declined, the causes of which Offred explains  Women took medicines, pills, men sprayed trees  Not to mention the exploding atomic power plants and  The mutual strain of syphilis and mould could touch  There is also a loss of freedom for women, reducing what they do after dark and making them nervous to go out alone. Illustrated possibly by the quote  The freedom to and the freedom from  Again, the impression is given that these are situations that the reader can easily identify with today, serving as another warning. It is the breakdown of the existing society falling population, Aids, pollution and nuclear-plant accidents which enables Gilead to enforce control, bringing anarchy into repression. The Gilead hierarchy uses the opportunity of manipulating religion to control the people. Discussing the decline in fertility Aunt Lydia is very critical  How could they have done such a thing? Jezebels! Scorning Gods gifts!  This ideology is used to teach the handmaids, encouraged by Aunt Lydia to accept their fate, comparing them to the army  you are the shock troops

European Debt Crisis Essay Example

European Debt Crisis Essay Example European Debt Crisis Essay European Debt Crisis Essay Roger Williams University [emailprotected] Honors Theses RWU Theses 5-11-2011 The Financial Crisis and the European Network Georges G. Gautherin Roger Williams University, [emailprotected] rwu. edu This Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by the RWU Theses at [emailprotected] It has been accepted for inclusion in Honors Theses by an authorized administrator of [emailprotected] For more information, please contact [emailprotected] edu. Recommended Citation Gautherin, Georges G. , The Financial Crisis and the European Network (2011). Honors Theses. Paper 3. http://docs. rwu. edu/honors_theses/3 The Financial Crisis and the European Network Georges G. Gautherin II Bachelor of Arts International Relations Feinstein College of Arts and Sciences Roger Williams University May 2011 2 Table of Contents Abstract . 4 Lit Review . 5 Introduction Network 5 Economic Interdependence 8 Financial Crisis of 2007-2011 . 12 Analysis 3 The Unifying Factor 13 Greece 14 Ireland 19 Portugal . 2 Spain . 24 The United Kingdom . 26 France . 29 Germany 0 Implications for the Future .. 32 .. 35 3 Abstract The financial crisis between the years of 2007 and 2011 affected states everywhere both internally and in their interactions with one another. This essay seeks to focus upon European states and how they were able to recover from the financial crisis and how networking between and among the states evolved as a result of the economic crisis. The analysis for this essay will utilize a range of research materials to establish valid definitions for networking and economic interdependence in order to allow for a sound analysis of the networking between states during the 2007-2011 financial crisis. Due to the recent time period of the topic this essay will draw from both contemporary and older sources, including news articles, to aid in the analysis of the economic networks involving European states. 4 Lit Review Introduction It is the goal of this paper to understand the effects of the financial crisis within Europe, and what the future implications are for the nodes in the European network through economic interdependence. Through the use of key concepts established in the literature review, this paper will cultivate definitions which will form the basis for the argument that the nodes of the European network, for which the European Union serves as the center, are economically interconnected. Should the nodes prove to be economically interconnected, the financial crisis will be the point upon which their interconnectedness is tested, culminating in a strengthening of the economic ties between the nodes or a weakening, or disintegration, of economic interconnectedness between the nodes of the European network. Network The financial crisis of 2007-20110 is an event that has affected every state in the international system. Having spread throughout the world it is important to understand the ways in which states and transnational actors are connected and how this interdependence affects each member of the network. The concept of a network is one that has been around for some time- as actors have been interacting with one another. It is the foundation for all other theoretical concepts in international and transnational relations and as a result it is one that has attracted a large amount of research and analysis. In their article Network Analysis for International Relations the authors, Emilie M. Hafner-Burton, Miles Kahler, and Alexander H. Montgomery, put forth a 5 starting definition of network which they utilize for their writing: they claim networks are â€Å"a mode of organization which facilitates collective ction and cooperation, exercises influence, or serves as a means of international governance† (Hafner-Burton, Kahler, Montgomery 560). Furthermore, networks utilize nodes, which can be â€Å"individuals or actors, such as organizations and states† (562) and it is these nodes that will allow this paper to recognize those involved within the network. They bring forth a c oncrete definition of their own design of networks being â€Å"any set or sets of ties between any set or sets of nodes† (Hafner-Burton, Kahler, Montgomery 562). The second definition brought forth by Hafner-Burton, Kahler, and Montgomery’s article is one that is both simple to understand and very accurate in its description. Combining their second definition with their explanation of nodes the reader is presented with a definition claiming that networks can include any number of state or non-state actors involving themselves through ties of any kind or number, including but not limited to political, economic, environmental or human rights ties. Whereas Hafner-Burton, Kahler, and Montgomery present networks in a basic sense, describing them as including any number of actors, Thomas Risse, in his work Transnational Actors and World Politics, gives his own, more specifically defined, version of network which he defines as â€Å"forms of organization characterized by voluntary, reciprocal, and horizontal patterns† (255). From this we can come to an understanding of how a network is maintained; that it is not always characterized by voluntary patterns. It is possible for a state to be forced, against its will, to partake in a network or actions with a network as a result of military, political or economic actions by an aggressor state. The network may also extend beyond reciprocal 6 patterns between actors. There are situations where one actor may act in a manner that affects its allies directly and other states, with whom it has no direct ties, indirectly. In other words, the actions of state A influence the actions of state B which affect, in turn, the situation in state C. Thus state C is affected by state A even though the two states are not formally involved in an alliance or other specific international network. Closely resembling the definition set forth by Hafner-Burton, Kahler, and Montgomery is Keohane and Nye’s description of networks, in regards to transnational relations, is the â€Å"contacts, coalitions, and interactions across state boundaries that are not controlled by the central foreign policy organs of governments† (Nye and Keohane 331). Furthermore they note that entities that arrive on the international scale that are non-states can become actors, implying that states as well can be actors; as a fact both state and non-state actors can engage in these networked interactions, according to Nye and Keohane (330). The use of Hafner-Burton, Kahler, and Montgomery’s article will allow this paper to build the foundation for its analysis of the economic interdependence of the European state and non-state actors in responding to the financial crisis of 2007-2011, with its simple yet broadlyencompassing definition. The definition provided by Thomas Risse, while useful in its own right, does not entirely fit with the direction this paper seeks to take and is therefore discarded in favor of the definition provided by Keohane and Nye. Their definition is quite useful in that it suggests that actors participate in relations across state boundaries which should be made clear due to the fact that non-state actors could do business solely within the state, fulfilling the requirement of a tie 7 between two actors yet for the purpose of this paper a network focusing upon the international system is far more beneficial than one working only within one state. The concept of ‘networks,’ as utilized by this paper, is one that combines elements from Keohane and Nye and from the article by Hafner-Burton, Kahler, and Montgomery; allowing this paper to define networks as â€Å"any set or sets of ties between any set or sets of nodes† (Hafner- Burton, Kahler, Montgomery 562), with nodes being states and/or non-state actors as described in their article, â€Å"interacting across state boundaries† (Nye and Keohane 330). With this definition of networks the paper can move forth and continue building its foundation. Economic Interdependence Whereas the concept of networks set forth above can be used in any instance in which there are interactions across state boundaries by various nodes this paper seeks to discover the effects of the financial crisis upon the economic interdependence between and among the nodes of the European network, how they were able to rise out of the recession and what the future may hold for the nodes’ economic interdependence. Therefore this paper must now address the effects of economic interdependence on the European network. For the literature researched economic interdependence has varying degrees of importance. In the case of Keohane and Nye, they define interdependence as simply â€Å"mutual dependence, referring to situations characterized by reciprocal effects among countries or among actors in different countries† (Keohane and Nye 8). It can be implied from this that a definition of economic interdependence involves mutual dependence economically meaning the exchange of currency, trade, supplies, and even workers between states and non-state actors. Keohane and 8 Nye though tend to focus upon economic interdependence as of secondary importance to political interdependence. Keohane and Nye utilize economic interdependence in Power and Interdependence to aid in the explanation of international regime change which occurs as governments â€Å"permit economic interdependence to grow† as a result of domestic pressure for â€Å"greater economic welfare† (Keohane and Nye 40). This regime change is therefore used to describe the after-effects of political interdependence and interaction as political and military actions are taken in vies for power post-war periods see a dramatic growth in state economies and international economic interdependence (Keohane and Nye 35-36). Whereas Keohane and Nye focused upon the political interdependence with economic interdependence a result of power and political plays by actors in a network, Zeev Maoz wrote on economic interdependence’s importance on peace between actors in a network. Maoz (274) states that the effect of economic interdependence on peace extends from the state to the system. States are reluctant to initiate conflict against enemies with whom they do not have direct trade ties because the uncertainty and instability associated with conflict may cause heir trading partner to look for other markets, thus adding to the direct cost of conflict. † As the states within a network become more interconnected, they are unable to commence conflict with states they do not have ties with due to the possibility of losing trade they currently have thereby increasing their vulnerability and putting them in a worse position then they were in previously. Utilizing his gathered data Maoz is able to discuss his analysis on the international community between 1870 and 2000 concerning dyadic networks-two nodes interacting with one another-and systemic networks-networks involving three or more nodes; the results of his analysis indicate that economic interdependence in both forms of network tended to â€Å"consistently reduce the 9 frequency†¦and probability of conflict† (277). In a prior chapter Maoz even mentions that the Great Depression had as one of its principal causes a â€Å"growing level of economic interdependence† (1). This statement greatly aids the paper in that it seeks to understand the future implications of economic interdependence on the European network as a result of the financial crisis of 2007-2011, which shows a great similarity in its breadth to the Great Depression and is viewed as one of the worst financial disasters since that event(Reuters). This will aid the paper due to the fact that the Great Depression is felt by many to have been a major contributing cause to World War II; an important fact to bear in mind as we look to the future following the current financial crisis. Maoz’s book, along with the data presented within, will go a long way to help this paper in its analysis of the effects of economic interdependence on the European network. The article Information and Economic Interdependence, by William Reed, greatly assists the analytical development of this paper; he asserts that â€Å"trade may enhance the probability that states settle their disagreement short of military conflict† which produces often undesired costs on both actors, and which may be too much for a potential aggressor to bear (55-57). Furthermore, he argues, it is through â€Å"information,† the distribution of knowledge of the costs of conflict and other crucial parameters in the actor’s value function, which states are able to assess the hazards of conflict with other actors connected to their node both directly or indirectly (Reed, 54-55). Where the literature from Keohane and Nye benefits this paper is in its description of the effects of economic interdependence granting the reader the knowledge that should a state feel vulnerable economically it may attempt military actions in order to rectify the situation. This was true of Japan’s actions in 1941 against the United States in an attempt to gain a resumption 10 in oil trade (Keohane and Nye 18). Furthermore, they note that should war threaten â€Å"international institutions will have a minor role† because states will feel an urent need to act out of self-interest (Keohane and Nye 35). Therefore should the economic interdependence of actors lead to conflict, non-state actors would lose power and influence in situations due to a lack of military power. Power and Interdependence will be useful in aiding this paper in arguing the effects of economic interdependence upon the European network and its nodes, yet this paper focuses upon economic interdependence which is not the principal concern of Keohane and Nye in the Power and Interdependence. This paper will seek to draw from Reed’s argument that trade between states may prevent disagreements from settle with military conflict, furthering the definitions presented from Keohane and Nye’s book, Power and Interdependence, and Maoz’s book. While both reed and Maoz present sound arguments and theoretical analyses of economic interdependence, the concept of economic interdependence utilize Keohane and Nye as its base in order to determine what the effects of the financial crisis of 2007-2011 will have upon the current European network, through the concept of economic interdependence. This paper seeks to understand what effects economic interdependence will have upon the European network after the financial crisis of 2007-2011 and, with the support of these pieces of literature, to discover whether the economic interconnectedness of the European network will be strengthened as a result of the financial crisis, or whether it will be weakened or destroyed as a result of the failure of the interconnectedness between the nodes. 11 Financial Crisis of 2007-2011 The financial crisis of 2007-2011 has been, as mentioned earlier in this paper, compared to the Great Depression as one of the worst financial crises in modern history. Yet some actors seem able to emerge from this crisis with renewed strength and vigor while others are being left behind, crying out for help. It is the goal of this paper to understand how these effects occurred and what the future implications are for those actors in the network through economic interdependence. With the plentiful information and data available due to the recent topic of this paper a firm answer can be very potentially be found. 2 Analysis The Unifying Factor The European Union, referenced throughout this paper as the European network, has been in existence for nearly two decades and is composed of twenty-seven member states, or nodes. These nodes are interconnected through a common European identity, yet a majority of these nodes are interconnected through a factor greater than simply being on the s ame continent; this factor connects their economies that provides a common identity, a feeling of unity, a level of security and stability and support between the nodes of the network; the euro (The Maastricht Treaty). As defined by Keohane and Nye in the literature review section, economic interdependence is the mutual dependence of nodes within a network, economically, in which there is an exchange of currency, trade, supplies, and even workers. The euro is a currency used by seventeen nodes in the European network and fits Keohane and Nye’s definition of being a currency that is shared by nodes. The adoption of the euro, though bringing with it benefits of support, stability, and interconnectedness, has some major disadvantages. One of these disadvantages is the forfeit of the right of an individual node to set its own interest rate. States with their own currencies can set interest rates in accordance with their specific needs, meaning that if their credit seemed â€Å"too loose, they could raise interest rates,† making credit easier to regulate and their economies potentially easier to stabilize(Samuelson). While such a right is convenient, the benefits granted under the adoption of the euro, namely the support and backing of the currency as well as an identity within a unified Europe, is viewed by many as a more important asset. 3 While the nodes have benefitted individually by using the euro, the financial crisis of 2007-2011 shows the extent to which the nodes as a whole are economically interconnected. The drastic increase in debt among the numerous nodes within the network, specifically Greece, Ireland, Portugal, and Spain (which are the deficit nodes upon which this paper focuses), has caused fear, panic, and the realization that the euro, which previously boosted many economies within the network may now cause all who have been bound together to fall. It is feared that the increase in the deficit of one node within the network might cause a general belief that the euro is a weak currency, spreading doubt about its future, and a belief that if one node’s economy is able to fail while being supported by the euro it is entirely possible for the economies of other nodes to fail as well with â€Å"market panics jumping from one weak country to the next† (Steinhauser). The degree to which these nodes are interconnected is found to be evident through the attempted bailout plans made to save the failing deficit nodes and aid them in revitalizing their economies. Greece Among the first to fall into a nearly uncontrollable spiral of debt and deficit was Greece. This was not entirely surprising as Greece was one of the dominant targets of the Marshall Plan in 1947; an attempt to revitalize the economies of numerous European nodes, though the political reasoning behind the Marshall Plan differs vastly from the reasoning behind the bailout plans currently being developed (Kunz 163). The financial aid received more than sixty years ago did nothing to prevent Greece from succumbing to the financial crisis of 2007-2011. Knowing that mostly every node in the world was hit by this crisis it is important in to understand that it is not 14 solely Greece’s fault that it fell into a deficit. However, unlike most other nodes Greece has yet to come out of the recession that has sent her on a downward spiral. Some Greek officials see this point differently; they blame the â€Å"rest of Europe for not helping its crippling financial crisis† the representative of Greece failed to take any responsibility for being incapable of rising out of the financial crisis (â€Å"Greek Deputy PM in roadside over EU†). Many Greek citizens still believe that the German government owes the Greek government reparations for acts taken during World War II including those that led to a famine in Athens, killing approximately 250,000 people, Germany â€Å"stealing its [Greece’s] gold during World War II†¦for Kalavryta, for Distomo and 70 billion euro for the ruins they left† (Itano). Though the financial crisis has caused many in Greece to blame other states for their inability to work through the recession, somesuch as Greek Prime Minister George Papandreouhave cast aside the desire to blame others and have readily sought out solutions to their troubles. In an attempt to stave off growing debt, the Greek government sold â€Å"nearly $7 billion in bonds†¦giving the Greek government much-needed breathing room in its scramble for new loans;† though this action was quite proactive on the part of the Greek government it was not nearly enough (Kulish). A major effect of the financial crisis and the Achilles Heel of the Greek government was its turn towards austerity by promising increases in taxes and reductions in government spending (Jolly, David and Landon, Thomas Jr. ). Though such plans were designed to decrease the deficit by increasing revenues and cutting spending, they will not have that effect if they lead to a reduction in economic activity and growth. . This happened to be the result in Greece, where the Greek government â€Å"narrowly avoided bankruptcy last May [2010]† (AP). With the states of the European network united together through the use of the euro, as 15 previously mentioned, the failure of one state within the network could spell doom for the other states within the network. Greece could not be allowed to fail. In regards to Greece, Chancellor Angela Merkel said, â€Å"Action is needed to help prevent â€Å"a chain reaction that would contaminate the market†Ã¢â‚¬  (Jolly, David and Landon, Thomas Jr. ). In order to prevent Greece’s bankruptcy, discussions ensued for a bailout beginning with 30 billion euros from the E. U. itself and a potential 15 billion euros from the International Monetary Fund (IMF) making the total a loan of 45 billion Euros (Reguly). Quickly enough this plan offered too little to the debt-ridden state of Greece and the loan offer was increased to 110 billion euros â€Å"under an international bailout loan agreement† (AP). Throughout the bailout negotiations, Greece’s actions towards austerity, cutting spending and increasing taxes have put a heavy strain on individual citizens. These acts led to a drastic increase in unemployment throughout the financial crisis, from 7. 9% in 2008 to 10. 2% in 2009 and finally climaxing at 14. 1% by the end of 2010. The following graph shows the rate of unemployment for Greece as well as the other states focused upon in this paper: Germany, France, the United Kingdom, Ireland, Portugal and Spain. 16 0% 6. 25% 12. 50% 18. 75% 25. 00% 2008 2009 2010 2011 Unemployment Percentage Year Germany France United Kingdom Greece Ireland Portugal Spain Figure 1 The unemployment percentage for European countries between the years 2008 and 2011. The dramatic increase in unemployment is one factor showing the continuing decline of the Greek government’s reputation, furthering its inability to save itself or its citizenry as debt mounts. Despite its public commitment to reform, through cutting spending and increased taxation, the Greek government’s budget deficit continued to rise through most of the financial crisis, finally seeing a decrease in 2010. 7 Figure 2 Tracking of Greece’s gross domestic product (GDP) in comparison to their spending- deficit or surplus. (Figures are in million euros). The decrease in the budget deficit in 2010 shows that the bailout has in some small way aided Greece in stabilizing her economy. However, this does not mean that Greece is no longer in danger of bankruptcy, which remains the case throug h 2010 and into 2011 (Inman). Figure 2 notes that in 2007 the Greek government spent 106. 4% of its GDP, in 2008 she spent 109. % of her GDP, spiking in 2009, when Greece nearly declared bankruptcy, to an expenditure of 115. 4% of GDP. This fell in 2010, with the aid of the bailout package, to 110. 5% of GDP. The possibility of Greece defaulting remains, though some experts believe it may be more beneficial to allow a default to occur, enabling the loans to be restructured â€Å"easing the terms of the loans and possibly writing off a portion altogether;† such a proposal would be considered only if the debt was deemed nearly impossible to manage (Chu). While such an action would enable the debt to become more manageable, even to the point that a reduced debt could be paid off, it would have dire consequences for Greece and the other nodes of the European network. Chu quotes Greek Finance Minister George Papaconstantinou saying â€Å"forcing creditors to take â€Å"haircuts,† or losses, would devastate Greek banks, which hold a major share of their 220,000 235,000 250,000 265,000 280,000 2007 2008 2009 2010 Million Euro GDP Deficit/Surplus 18 country’s debt and potentially set off a wider panic. Furthermore, a â€Å"prominent member of the European Central Bank said a Greek debt restructuring would be a disaster for the Eurozone with knock-off effects on banks in France, Britain and Germany that hold Greek debt† (Inman). Greece’s crisis is not one that will be solved overnight, as can be seen by its year long struggle to prevent bankruptcy and default on the loans granted to her by the other nodes within the European network. Greece’s flirtation with bankruptcy and default show the weakness in her government and its inability to stabilize the economy and stimulate growth. Yet the nodes within the network continually bail Greece out of trouble preventing her from falling into bankruptcy or defaulting. The nodes within the network do not want to see Greece default because that would limit investors’ faith in the euro, create a pit in which all excess funds would be drawn in order to save a floundering Greece and the strength of the euro would wane as it was seen to be too weak to keep nodes from falling into bankruptcy. Any action that would represent a failure on the part of the euro is something the European network strives avidly to avoid. Under a worst-case scenario, the failure of one or multiple nodes could mean the failure of the entire euro network. Ireland Despite fervent attempts by the nodes to prevent a contagion effect within the network, Ireland was the next to seek assistance in November 2010, after Greece had sought aid through a bailout from neighbor nodes earlier in the year. After a burst in the housing bubble and poor credit loans to its citizens, Ireland began to suffer the same fate as Greece: a mounting debt and government deficit which put the banks into an unstable state (Steinhauser). Such an effect is described as ironic in that â€Å"until recently, it was admiringly dubbed the Celtic Tiger for emulating Asian countries in attracting foreign investment†¦and achieving rapid export-led 19 growth† (Samuelson). The downfall of this node, despite its small size, indicates that no matter the growth and potential of an economy within the European network, financial crisis and mounting debt can plague any node that is unprepared for such a storm. As can be seen throughout the European network, unemployment rose as the nodes attempted to consolidate funds to stave off deficit and debt. In Ireland, Figure 1, the unemployment rose from 8% in 2008 to 12. 8% in 2009 and reached a level of 14. 5% in 2010, making the unemployment rate in Ireland slightly greater than in Greece. Ireland, in an attempt to put an end to her financial crisis, fell prey to the same trap that ensnared Greece, austerity. As debt and deficit rose Ireland attempted to cut spending and increase taxes. In a manner comparable to Greece, this policy did the opposite of what was intended. Instead of reducing the eficit, it increased it by putting more of the country’s citizenry out of work. Instead of stimulating the economy, it had the effect of â€Å"undermining desperately needed economic growth† (Steinhauser). The result is a node that began the financial crisis with a 128 million euro budget surplus and fell to a 13,196 million euro budget deficit in 2008, a 22,795 million euro deficit in 2009 and a 49,903 million euro deficit in 2010. This translates to spending 107. 3 percent of t he GDP in 2008, 114. 3 percent of the GDP in 2009 and 132. percent of the GDP in 2010, making it the node with the highest GDP budget deficit percentage in the network; such a statistic does not inspire confidence in a node that cannot get its economy under control and stabilized. 20 Figure 3 Tracking of Ireland’s GDP in comparison to their spending- deficit or surplus. (Figures are in million euros). As the crisis steadily worsened, Ireland avidly sought to avoid a bailout. It sought to sort out its problems without the aid of the other nodes in the European network. Against Ireland’s desires, the â€Å"finance ministers of the Eurozone gathered in Brussels†¦determined to push Dublin into accepting help now† (Wearden, Graeme and Julia Kollewe). The actions taken by the finance ministers of the neighboring nodes so quickly after a downturn in Ireland’s situation brings to the forefront the recognition that the financial crisis is not over and is in fact spreading further and faster than previously anticipated. It is evident that the nodes of the European network do not desire the financial crisis to spread. Their goal is to shore up the debt, isolate the problems, and enact resolutions that would cause the economies of the nodes to return to normal and to restore public faith in the euro. The mounting pressure led to a negotiation with Ireland in which she accepted a rescue package of nearly 90 billion euros from the members of the European network in order to â€Å"prop up Ireland’s loss-ridden banks† (Samuelson). With these funds in hand, Ireland must now institute policies that will foster economic growth while limiting the extent of austerity programs until her economy can be stabilized. 0 52,500 105,000 157,500 10,000 2007 2008 2009 2010 Million Euro GDP Deficit/Surplus 21 The crucial factor in the financial crisis occurring in Ireland is the speed with which Ireland was pressured into accepting a bailout package. This is due largely to the fact that, once the situation in Ireland worsened, thoughts immediately turned to Portugal. The Portuguese warned the member node s of the European network that their node â€Å"was at risk of a possible contagion† (Moya). The quickly spreading contagion is forcing the nodes to band together to attack the threat head on in an attempt to halt the problem before it goes any further. While the actions taken to aid Ireland were swift, they were neither a preemptive strike, nor a comprehensive solution to the problem. The danger to the interconnected euro network remains. Portugal In November, as Ireland’s economy faltered and steps by the other nodes within the European network were taken to prevent a contagion effect throughout the network, Portugal highlighted the possibility that it too would need assistance from the members of the European network. Like Ireland, the state’s leaders refused to accept a bailout plan unless all other options were no longer viable. With a cost of borrowing of more than 7%, due to â€Å"the market’s lack of confidence† in Portugal’s economy, according to Moya, and political division preventing â€Å"a new set of austerity measures designed to ease a huge debt burden that is crippling the economy† Portugal continued to falter under an increasing debt and government deficit (Hatton). According to Figure 1 Portugal, just like every other state, saw an increase in unemployment through the course of the financial crisis. However, of the great debtor nodes, Portugal’s’ unemployment rate remained the lowest. It grew only from 7. 9% in 2008, to 10. 2% in 2009, and finally to 11% in 2010 This can be explained by the fact that Portugal had a lower budget deficit than either Ireland or Greece throughout the financial crisis and was the last of the three to 22 ask for assistance; thus, Portugal was able to stave off the worst of the crisis and avoid a bailout longer than the other two. Figure 4 Tracking of Portugal’s GDP in comparison to their spending- deficit or surplus. (Figures are in million euros). The statistics in Figure 4 show that the beginning of the economic crisis had no effect upon the budget deficit, with only a . 4% increase in the budget deficit between 2007 and 2008, yet there was a severe jump in 2009 to a total expenditure of 110. 1% of the GDP which decreased to 109. 1% expenditure of the GDP in 2010, showing that progress had been made to decrease the deficit and spending in relation to the GDP. Despite the mere 1% difference in budget deficit between 2009 and 2010, Portugal was still drowning in debt and in April 2011 requested a bailout by the member nodes of the European network (Seco). The next three weeks resulted in negotiations that have climaxed in an agreement for a 78 billion euro bailout package. Though the precise terms of the package are still under negotiation, the bailout has been heartily welcomed by financial markets which will now allow Lisbon to â€Å"repair its finances without 160,000 167,500 175,000 182,500 190,000 2007 2008 2009 2010 Million Euro GDP Deficit/Surplus 23 defaulting on its debts† (Wearden). The bailout should give Portugal some time to sort out its economy and to pay off debts upon which otherwise it would have defaulted. Similarly to Ireland a few months before, Portugal’s financial downturn was responded to quickly in an attempt to halt the progress of the contagion that had been spreading throughout the European network. Once again, the nodes of the network came together to aid a faltering node and restore faith in the Euro from which they all benefit. Despite the European network’s fervent efforts to prevent any node from defaulting, which have through Portugal been successful, an even greater danger looms on the horizon, Spain. Such a node has the potential to dwarf the first three debtor nodes combined and leave the entire network in disarray. Spain Though originally a creditor, this behemoth node is closely following in the footsteps of the previous three nodes that have all requested bailout packages. Back when Greece was requesting a bailout package, Spain was loaning money, much like the rest of the European network. Because of this, it was affected a bit differently than the previous nodes as it took a hit in the form of a downgraded credit rating, which â€Å"unsettled investors again† (Baetz, Juergen and Pan Pylas). An event such as a downgraded credit score is alarming in that it causes investors to become wary and fearful of investing in a node that is gradually growing weaker and more unstable. As a result it would become difficult for Spain to raise funds as easily as it had prior to its credit score downgrade. After being seen as in trouble throughout 2010, Spain was grouped together with Portugal in November as a perceived risk of default, causing a scare amongst investors. This led to a 24 dumping of both Spanish and Portuguese bonds near the end of November 2010 (Faiola). Furthermore, this perceived risk â€Å"drove their [Portugal and Spain] borrowing costs to near-record highs† causing a further erosion of confidence in Spain (Faiola). During these troubled times, Spain saw a drastic increase in her unemployment rate (Figure 1) from 14% in 2008, to 19% in 2009 and finally 20. 5% in 2010. These levels exceeded every other node in the European network. In comparison to the other nodes analyzed, the budget deficit of Spain is not nearly as bad, percentage wise, as those nodes that requested bailouts; as shown in Figure 5, she begins with a budget surplus in 2007, leading to spending 104. % of GDP in 2008, spending 111. 1% of GDP in 2009 and spending 109. 2% GDP in 2010. Statistically this may not seem to be problematic but when looking at the GDP which exceeds 1 trillion euros, the budget deficit grows very rapidly, creating a great amount of debt in a short period of time. Figure 5 Tracking of Spain’s GDP in comparison to their spending- deficit or surplus. (Figures are in million Euros). Whereas the preceding three nodes have all skirted with defaulting before receiving bailouts, Spain has no current intention of receiving funds from the member nodes of the 1,000,000 ,050,000 1,100,000 1,150,000 1,200,000 2007 2008 2009 2010 Million Euro GDP Deficit/Surplus 25 European network. Though a fund has been established in which approximately 750 billion euros are available to any node utilizing the euro which may be in need of a bailout, Spain has not taken a step towards this fund (Hooi). Despite this, the fear remains that, with Spain’s economy â€Å"more than twice the size of the Greek, Irish and Portuguese economies combined†¦a Spanish rescue could severely deplete the $1 trillion [750 billion euro] stability fund set up by the E. U. and IMF this year to contain the crisis† (Faiola). Should Spain utilize the security net set down by the European network, it would potentially drain nearly the entire fund, leaving little to no money for any other node that may be in need of assistance. Such an action would leave the creditors who invested in the fund, such as Germany, France, and the United Kingdom, vulnerable to future crises as a sizable portion of their economies would be drained by the behemoth node of Spain. The United Kingdom Though not a node that utilizes the euro, the United Kingdom is still an active member of the European network, and a node that helps support some of the others that have nearly defaulted as a result of the financial crisis. Though now a creditor, in 2008 bank reports claimed that the United Kingdom had â€Å"financial losses of GBP122. 6 billion† (UK Losses hit GBP122bn, says BoE). By 2009 Britain claimed to have been out of the recession yet her methods were not as successful in containing unemployment as those adopted by Germany or France. As noted in Figure 1, during the course of the financial crisis, the United Kingdom saw an increase in the unemployment rate from 6. 3% in 2008 to 7. 7% in 2009 and a tiny increase in 2010 to 7. 8% unemployment. 26 Figure 6 Tracking of the United Kingdom’s GDP in comparison to their spending- deficit or surplus. (Figures are in million great Britain pound- GBP). The statistics in Figure 6 show that like many of the other nodes in the European network the United Kingdom saw an increase in its budget deficit by the end of the financial crisis. Starting in 2007, it spent 102. 7% of its GDP, increased that to 105% in 2008 and 111. 4% in 2009 before seeing a slight decrease in 2010 to 110. 4% of GDP. Though this is comparable to Portugal or even Spain’s percentages, the United Kingdom is strengthened by having a set and strict plan of austerity along with a currency it can regulate by not being a node that utilizes the euro (West). With the ability to continually throw around money as it sees fit, the United Kingdom has remained a creditor in order to assist other nodes in need of assistance and nearing default. The United Kingdom has, as a result of the financial crisis, acted as a major creditor node in the European network, with a GBP100 billion exposure to Greece, Spain and Portugal, with â€Å"GBP25 billion invested in Greece and Portugal and GBP75 billion invested in Spain,† as of 28 April 2010. A default by any of these states would leave the United Kingdom with a major deficit as its loans would not be paid back (Treanor). One year later the United Kingdom has a nearly GBP200 billion exposure to Greece, Ireland and Portugal (The Economist) with roughly 1,300,000 ,400,000 1,500,000 1,600,000 1,700,000 2007 2008 2009 2010 Million GBP GDP Deficit/Surplus 27 GBP140 billion of that exposure to Ireland alone (Winnett, Robert and Bruno Waterfield). The degree to which the United Kingdom is economically interconnected is significant in that a default by any node which has taken loans from the United Kingdom would severely damage the economy of the United Kingdom, yet without these loa ns the nodes would have most likely defaulted. Obvously, both sides need each other, which is the very definition of interdependence. France The financial crisis was in fact a wonderful time for France as it was seen as the prominent power in the European network, with supremacy over all the other nodes. France would often brag that she was â€Å"acting while Germany was thinking† (Power Shift). France sought to develop a â€Å"Europe-wide financial regulator and initiate a joint bailout fund† with Germany (Germany and France have often disagreed on bailout strategy). Despite her efforts, France was not able to match Germany’s growth during this crisis and recession and thus fell behind. However, it should be noted that France still remains one of the most powerful nodes in the European network. The unemployment she suffered shows no great change in numbers, from 8. 2% to 10% to 9. 6% in 2008, 2009, and 2010 respectively (Figure 1). Where France truly fell down was in the level of her deficit spending; in 2007 France spent 102. 7% of her GDP, in 2008 103. 3% but in 2009 she jumped to 107. 5% of her GDP, essentially doubling the debt she normally would have taken in that year, finally seeing a slight decrease in the form of a 107. 0% budget deficit in 2010. 8 Figure 5 Tracking of France’s GDP in comparison to their spending- deficit or surplus. (Figures are in million Euros). In spite of this increase in budget deficit, France remained a strong node in the European network, being a major creditor and savior to many defaulting nodes. As a creditor France worked closely with Germany, often shouldering loans similar to those to which the German node was exposing i tself. The French exposure, coming up short under Britain and Germany, is still a significant figure and risk valued at nearly 150 billion euros. Just like the United Kingdom, France would greatly suffer should a node default, restructure its debt, or take a ‘haircut’ and reduce the overall debt it owes (The Economist). The French aided the other nodes within the network in order to protect the euro, showing that it was strong and backed by strong nodes in order to prevent fears from investors in a weak or unstable euro to gain favor with the defaulting nodes and thus solidify its power within the network. The states that accepted these loans became dependent upon France to prevent them from defaulting or falling into bankruptcy. This in turn forced France to become dependent upon their loan repayments. Though simplistic, the investment France made into the defaulting nodes bound the nodes together tighter than they had been before the financial crisis. 1,800,000 1,875,000 1,950,000 2,025,000 2,100,000 2007 2008 2009 2010 Million Euro GDP Deficit/Surplus 29 Germany Germany’s development into the most economically powerful node in the European network was a slow, steady and careful progression in which hasty action was not taken but decisions thought out and weighed. As previously mentioned, France led an effort at the start of the financial crisis to rally nodes behind her in an attempt to solve the financial problems of all the nodes at once. Germany opposed â€Å"any European plan that would mirror U. S. Treasury Secretary Henry Paulsons proposed $700-billion purchase of banks bad assets. Mr. Steinbruck questioned why German taxpayers should have to pay up to stabilize situations for which other countries are responsible† (Germany, France disagree on bailout strategy). The German idea for solving the financial crisis was to worry about its own people first, then to be concerned about those nodes that were unable to save themselves. Germany’s rise to supremacy by the end of the financial crisis was the result of â€Å"years of wage moderation and labour-market reforms that improved its competitiveness† (Power shift). Furthermore, Germany’s rate of unemployment (Figure 1) shows that it started at 7. 1% in 2008, rose to 7. 4% in 2009 and dropped to 6. % in 2010, almost as low as the United Kingdom’s unemployment rate at the beginning of the financial crisis in 2008. Such careful planning on behalf of the German government not only allowed for an increase in job availability but in keeping the budget deficit extremely low. 30 Figure 5 Tracking of Germany’s GDP in comparison to their spending- deficit or surplus. (Figures are in million Euros). Unlike many other European countries, Germany has kept its budget numbers u nder control. In 2007, the state had a budget surplus of . 3% or 6. 55 billion euros; in 2008, it had a surplus of . % or 2,82 billion euros; in 2009, it ran a deficit by spending 103% of the GDP and 103. 3% of GDP the following year. Overall, Germany was able to keep its economy and spending in reasonable balance. With such a strong economy, Germany naturally became a creditor node helping to finance the safety net set up for any node utilizing the euro that would need financial assistance or a bailout (Hooi). Being the prominent node in the European network Germany naturally shoulders a great deal of the loans requested by other nodes within the network. The degree of exposure that is estimated for Germany is upwards of 230 billion euros (The Economist). As a result should the debtor nodes in fact default, Germany and France would be hit simultaneously though Germany would definitely be suffering under a loss of nearly 250 billion euros. Therefore, it is for the same reasons as mentioned for France that Germany and the defaulting nodes are economically interconnected. The defaulting nodes depend upon Germany for 2,300,000 2,375,000 2,450,000 2,525,000 2,600,000 2007 2008 2009 2010 Million Euro GDP Deficit/Surplus 31 conomic and financial assistance while Germany supports the defaulting nodes in an attempt to boost the strength of the euro as well as investor faith in the euro. Should a node fail under the euro it could spell disaster for other nodes depending upon the euro for support, growth and prosperity. Implications for the Future The bailout of several defaulting nodes by economically stable nodes has shown the dependence of th e defaulting nodes, namely Greece, Ireland, Portugal and potentially Spain, upon the economically stable and growing nodes, the United Kingdom, France and Germany. Conversely, the investments made by the creditor nodes and the possibility of a loss on those investments, makes the creditor nodes dependent upon the economic recovery of the defaulting nodes The fear of a node defaulting under the euro first led the creditor nodes to act. A default while under the euro may lead to a panic and the sale of bonds or stock in the euro. Aloss of faith in the euro would prevent future investments from being made, restricting potential revenue and growth. The failure of one node under the euro could lead to the failure of another node, as was feared in Greece, then Ireland, then Portugal. In order to ensure the survival and continued growth of the euro, those defaulting would have to be saved by the creditor nodes. In this case one side would depend upon the inflow of currency to stave off debt and bankruptcy while the other side depends upon the defaulting nodes to work out their problems and show that the euro is still strong and worth the attention of investors. The implications for the future are very bipolar: either the nodes cooperate, unify, and stabilize the economies of the nodes within the European network which could require continued 32 nvestment but would culminate in strengthened economic ties and/or a strong multi-nodal currency, or the nodes of the networks would find the economic interconnectedness weakening and the ties between the nodes dissolving until the network was far weaker than it had been previously or the network had dissolved completely. If the nodes remained united in their goals to prevent any node from defaulting and keeping the euro as strong as possible the end result would be a European network that had been strengthened through crises and despair. The end of the financial crisis within the European network would mean that the defaulting nodes would have found a way to manage their debt, stabilize their economies, and produce a level of economic growth in order to rebuild. Furthermore it would give a justification for the strength of the euro and its adoption within the nodes of the network. Finally, it would show that the nodes of the European network had strengthened their economic ties to the point that the continued prosperity of the euro would depend upon each node working with the others in order to keep the euro strong. If the nodes were unwilling to continue to finance or bailout the countries in trouble, Greece, Ireland, and Portugal might default leading potentially to a default by Spain which would absorb the majority of the safety net set in place by the European network and the IMF. With all four of these nodes defaulting on loans and draining the European network’s reserve of funds, Germany, France and the United Kingdom would all be hit hard causing recessions and a new wave of financial crises. This would spread throughout the network even more rapidly than the contagion seen in the recent past. With a weakened euro and recession, each node may be forced to focus upon itself, default upon loans, do whatever it can to survive, all at the expense of the network. Such an action could lead to nodes drifting apart as the tie that bound 33 them together and forced them to be economically interdependent came unraveled. This could cause the European network to fall apart. It is clear that the euro is a powerful driving force in the actions of the nodes and one that allows for the nodes to bind closer and become ever more interdependent. Yet the euro has the potential to destroy not merely a single node but the entire network as well under specific circumstances. Despite the outcome, the financial crisis of 2007-2011 has thus far strengthened economic interdependence between and among the nodes in the European network and has the potential to make it even stronger, should each of node ultimately succeed in easing the crisis within its own borders. 34 A resurgent Germany takes advice from no one; Results bolster belief that it managed crisis better than other nations. (2010, August 16). The International Herald Tribune, p. 16. AP. (2011, January 19). Greece likely to seek bailout extension. The New Zealand Herald. Articles of Agreement. International Monetary Fund. imf. org/external/pubs/ft/aa/ aa08. htm (accessed February 26, 2011). Baetz, Juergen and Pan Pylas. (2010, April 28). Spain downgraded, Europe debt crisis widens. Bloomberg Businessweek. Chu, Henry. (2011, April 15). Europe ponders letting bailed-out nations default. Los Angeles Times. Economist. (2011, April 14). Follow the Money. Is Germany bailing out euro-area countries to save its own banks? economist. com/node/18560535, (2011, April 27). Euro crash would not just be a Greek tragedy. (2010, February 18). The Age, p. 18. Faiola, Anthony. (2010, November 27). Debt crisis escalates in Europe; fears grow about Spain. The Washington Post. Germany, France disagree on bailout strategy; German Finance Minister says regions problems less severe than in U. S. ; conflicting views could deepen rift in 27-nation EU. (2008, October 2). The Globe and the Mail, p. B11. Germany to Jointly Fight Slowdown. (2009, January 30). China Daily. Greek deputy PM in broadside over EU. (2010, February 23). The Daily Post, p. 9. Itano, Nicole. Greece’s Debt Crisis: Blaming Nazi Germany. (2010, February 26). Time. Hafner-Burton, Emilie M. , Miles Kahler, and Alexander H. Montgomery. 2009. Network Analysis for International Relations. International Organizations 63: 559-592. Hatton, Barry. (2011, March 21). Portugal gov’t nears collapse amid debt crisis. Yahoo News. Hooi, Joyce. (2010, December 2). Euro is in no trouble, says EU official. The Business Times Singapore. IMF funds may rise $500bn. (2009, March 10). The Irish Times, p. 21. Inman, Phillip. (2011, April 26). Greece and Portugal debts worse than expected. Guardian. co. uk, guardian. co. k/business/2011/apr/26/greece-portugal-debtworse- than-thought (accessed 2011, April 30). 35 Jolly, David and Thomas Jr. Landon. Landon, (2010. May 6). Euro punished as E. U. strives to cauterize crisis in Greece. The International Herald Tribune, p. 1. Keohane, Robert O. , and Joseph S. Nye. 1977. Interdependence in World Politics; Realism and Complex Interdependence ; Explaining International Regime Change. In Power and Interdependence, ed. . 1-60. Boston, Toronto: Little, Brown and Company. Kulish, Nicholas. (2010, March 6). Germany holds back on a lifeline to Greece. The International Herald Tribune, p. 3. Kunz, Diane B. (1997). The Marshall Plan Reconsidered: A Complex of Motives. Foreign Affairs, 76, 3, p. 162-170. Council on Foreign Relations. Maoz, Zeev. 210. Networks of Nations: The Evolution, Structure, and Impact of International Networks, 1816-2001. New York: Cambridge Press University. Moya, Elena. (2010, November 15). Ireland debt crisis worsens as Portugal warns of contagion effect on Europe. Guardian. co. uk. Nye, Jr. , Joseph S. , and Robert O. Keohane. 1971. Transnational Relations and World Politics: An Introduction. International Organization 25 (3): 329-349. Power Shift; France loses ground to Germany. 2010 December 11). The Economist. Recession is over but the pain will go on, Bank says. (2009, September 16). Daily Mail. Reed, William 2003. Information and Economic Interdependence. The Journal of Conflict Resolution 47 (1): 54-71. http://0-www. jstor. org. helin. uri. edu/stable/3176182 (accessed March 5, 2011). Reguly, Eric. (2010, April 12). EU make (EURO)30-billion Greek rescue promise; Members overcome deep political revisions to pitch a plan strong enough to convince market country won’t default on its debt. The Globe and Mail, p. B1. Reuters. Three Top Economists Agree 2009 Worst Financial Crisis Since Great Depression; Risks Increase If Right Steps Are Not Taken. Business Financial News, Breaking US International News | Reuters. com. 27 Feb. 2009. Web. 28 Feb. 2011. . Risse, Thomas. 2007. Transnational Actors and World Politics. In Handbook of International Relations, ed. Walter Carlsnaes, Thomas Risse, and Beth A. Simmons, 255-274. Los Angeles, London, New Dehli, Singapore: SAGE Publications. Samuelson, Robert J. (2010, November 29). In Ireland’s debt crisis, an ominous reckoning for Europe. The Washington Post. 36 Seco, Francisco. (2011, April 7). Portugal requests bailout. Will Europe’s debt crisis stop there? The Christian Science Monitor, 2011, April 27. Steinhauser, Gabriele. (2010, November 16). Ireland Debt Crisis: Contagion Fears Loom over EU Meeting. Huffpost World. huffingtonpost. com/2010/11/16/ireland-debtcrisis- conta_n_784079. html? view=print, 2011, April 14. The Maastricht Treaty: Treaty on European Union. Eurotreaties. Available from http:// www. eurotreaties. com/maastrichteu. pdf. Internet; accessed 1 May 2011. Treanor, Jill. (2010, April 28). Debt Crisis: K banks sitting on GBP100bn exposure to Greece, Spain and Portugal. uardian. co. uk/business/2010/apr/28/debt-turmoil-bank-crisisfears, (2011, April 28). UK Losses hit GBP122bn, says BoE. (2008, November 3). Financial Times, ltd, section 1361-1593. Wearden, Graeme. (2011, May 4). Portugal bailout details boost euro and bond markets. Guardian. co. uk. guardian. co. uk/business/2011/may/04/portugal-bailout-eurorises- bond-markets? intcmp=239 (2011, May 5). Wearden, Graeme an d Julia Kollewe. (2010, November 17). Ireland’s debt crisis-today as it happened. guardian. co. uk. West, Matthew. (2011, May 6). ‘The UK Will Need a Bailout Soon’: Jim Rogers.

Irreparable vs. Unrepairable

Irreparable vs. Unrepairable Irreparable vs. Unrepairable Irreparable vs. Unrepairable By Maeve Maddox A reader asks, What are the differences between the use of unrepairable and irreparable? Pronunciation note: Unrepairable: un-ree-PAIR-uh-buhl Irreparable: i-REP-uh-ruh-buhl Both words are used to mean â€Å"incapable of being mended,† but unrepairable is nonstandard in American usage. Some online dictionaries include entries for unrepairable, but others do not. If you use any of the following free online dictionaries, you won’t find an entry for unrepairable in them: Longman Macmillan American Heritage The Free Dictionary Cambridge (no entry in either the US or UK section) If your free dictionary of choice is one of the following, you will find entries for unrepairable in them: Collins Oxford Dictionaries (including the section for US English) Dictionary.com (based on the American Random House dictionary) Of the resources I rely on, the American dictionary Merriam-Webster Unabridged lacks an entry for unrepairable, but The Oxford English Dictionary lists the word with nine citations dating from 1600 to 2006- without any suggestion that the word is nonstandard. Another of my stalwarts, The Oxford American Writer’s Thesaurus, gives unrepairable without comment as a synonym for irreparable. Some commenters on language sites discern a difference of connotation, suggesting that unrepairable should be used to describe such things as damaged bicycles, toasters, and edifices, whereas irreparable should be reserved for reputations and things that are not man-made, like the environment. The following quotations illustrate the supposed distinction: Apples New Retina MacBook Pro is the Most  Unrepairable Laptop to Date.   The bike, a Ninja 300, was written off as unrepairable after the collision  . BUT, Attachment trauma, neglect and abuse cause irreparable damage in the developing neurons of the brain. An increase in cruise ships in the area threatens to cause irreparable damage to the continents pristine environment.   Such a distinction no doubt appeals to some people, but the futility of getting everyone to observe it is obvious to anyone who has ever tried to explain the difference between uninterested and disinterested. In practice, unrepairable and irreparable seem to be regarded as exact synonyms: Most automobile insurance policies cover the costs to repair a vehicle after a collision or some other insured cause, or if the damage is irreparable, the actual cash value of the vehicle. [The report] asserted that radiation exposure did unrepairable harm to genetic material and increased the probability of defects and mutations in future generations.   Incorrectly installed knives can cause  irreparable damage  to both the knives and the rotor, leading to serious destruction within the machine. Chlorine-free diapers are the same as regular disposables, and they wont expose your children to harsh chemicals or cause  unrepairable harm to the environment. I found this example of unrepairable in a legal context that definitely calls for irreparable: According to Stern, all three parties involved  Ã¢â‚¬Å"have made public remarks that are totally untrue, with evil malicious harmful intent to do the reputation and character of the plaintiff unrepairable harm.† The phrase â€Å"irreparable harm† is an established legal term. Its meaning is â€Å"harm that cannot be reversed or repaired.† The bottom line for American speakers is that unrepairable is nonstandard- for now. Note: Two other nonstandard forms sometimes seen are irrepairable and nonrepairable. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Misused Words category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:How to Punctuate References to Dates and TimesBest Websites to Learn English20 Slang Terms for Law Enforcement Personnel

Implications of Implementing a company-wide business information Essay

Implications of Implementing a company-wide business information system (ERP) in Tesco - Essay Example This provides a platform for companies to manage their information and business data so that they can carry out their daily operations in the most effective way possible. Enterprise Resource Planning is a form of business information system which companies can make use of when they want to effectively manage all their operations (Abramowicz and Zurada, 2001). Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) refers to the incorporation of modern technology in business management systems (Adam and Sammon, 2004). In this day and age, information technology plays a major role in how business processes are carried out and this has a direct impact on the ultimate performance of a company. In this respect, ERP is a combination of three business aspects: management practices, business objectives and information technology. ERP helps business entities that have a wide operations base to have adequate information to carry out their vast business functions and still be able to beat their competitors in the m arket (Abramowicz and Zurada, 2001). The implementation of an ERP system in Tesco would greatly enhance the company’s performance. Tesco is a U.K. based grocery and general retailer founded in 1919. The retailer is the world’s third largest with stores in 14 countries in Europe, Asia and North America. Tesco is the largest retail company in the UK where it commands a strong 30% market share. It was originally founded as a food and drinks retailing company, but it has since diversified its business to include electronics, telecoms, financial services, clothing, health, home, car, pet insurance, dental as well as retailing, and renting music, movies, software and internet services. With this wide array of operations, it is important for the company to have an ERP system that will make it easy for the company to share information with the aim of increasing profits and beating the competition (Schneider, 2010). This paper discusses the implications of implementing a compan y-wide business information system (ERP) in Tesco Plc. Some of the issues that will be discussed in detail include: the method of application of ERP in Tesco and the benefits of the system to Tesco’s core business. Issues such as critical success factors, supplier control, design and manufacture as well as information and data management as pertaining to ERP are part of what will be discussed. The paper also looks at some of the positive and negative aspects of implementing ERP in Tesco. The requirements and conditions that must be met to implement an ERP system in the company will also be discussed. For ERP to work in any environment, there have to be various Critical Success Factors (CSFs) to support it (Monk and Wagner, 2009). In Tesco’s case, there are various CSFs which can be utilized by the company in order to make business operations much easier. These CSFs which are relevant to Tesco’s current situation are: product diversification, proper management an d good employee relations and organized data management. The fact that Tesco has a wide array of products that it sells to its customers is a big plus for the company. The situation is likely to get even better with a fool-proof ERP system. The system will make it possible for the organization to keep track of the product circulation throughout its areas of operations. Since it has several products under its banner, having a reliable EPR system will enable the company to know when the how each of the